Posted by Course Objective: Describe how hormones exert control over target cells and how feedback within these systems works. Describe how hormones interact with the production and control of other hormones.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, better known as ADHD, is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is characterized by inattention, impulsivity, and hyperactivity (Campo et al., 2011). ADHD is a heterogeneous disorder that is commonly comorbid with other disorders like bipolar or anxiety disorders (Madras et al., 2005). ADHD is associated with financial burdens, stress to family, and adverse academic outcomes (Biederman, 2004). It is believed that there is a dysfunction within the frontal-subcortical pathways and an imbalance of dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems (Biederman, 2004). The dopaminergic system deals with dopamine, while the noradrenergic system deals with norepinephrine. Dopamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter that acts as a chemical messenger as well as a hormone (Cleveland Medical Clinic, 2025). Dopamine’s role in the body includes movement, memory, pleasurable reward, motivation, cognition, behavior, attention, mood, and learning (Cleveland Medical Clinic, 2025). Norepinephrine, also known as noradrenaline, is both a neurotransmitter and a hormone (Cleveland Clinic Medical, 2025). It’s a messenger that transmits nerve signals throughout the body, and as a hormone is produced from the adrenal gland (Cleveland Clinic medical, 2025). As a neurotransmitter, norepinephrine is created from dopamine using an enzyme called dopamine B-hydroxylase, which adds a hydroxyl at the B position to create norepinephrine from dopamine (Snyder, 2011). What norepinephrine does in the body is increase alertness, arousal, and attention as well as constrict blood vessels (Cleveland Clinic Medical, 2025). The believed reason why there is an imbalance of dopamine and norepinephrine in the brain is that those with ADHD might have too many reuptake receptors (Barkley, 2017). Reuptake receptors act as vacuums that will suck up all the neurotransmitters back into the nerve cell (Barkley, 2017). If there is a lot, that will cause neurotransmitters to be quickly absorbed after being released, potentially causing the lack of dopamine and norepinephrine that is associated with ADHD (Barkley, 2017).
But there are several different treatment options for ADHD that can help, ranging from therapy to medication or a combination of both. The most common type of therapy to help deal with ADHD is behavioral therapy (CDC, 2024). However, the most common treatment method is medication that deals with dopamine and norepinephrine, which ranges from stimulant to non-stimulant medication (CDC, 2024). A stimulant is a type of drug that works by increasing the levels of certain chemicals in the brain (Cleveland Clinic, 2025). For ADHD specifically, it targets dopamine and norepinephrine levels within the brain. Stimulants can do this by being an agonist medication (Cleveland Clinic, 2025). An agonist is a chemical substance that binds to receptors, activating them to elicit a biological response (Health Research Board, 2024). So, a stimulant will bind to dopamine and norepinephrine receptors to increase the production of these chemicals while also preventing their reuptake, allowing for increased levels (Campo et al., 2011). Taking a stimulant will help those with ADHD by increasing their attention, reducing hyperactivity, controlling impulsive behavior, and helping manage executive dysfunctions (Cleveland Clinic, 2025). A non-stimulant medication is a prescription drug that isn’t considered a controlled substance (Cleveland Clinic, 2025). Non-stimulants for ADHD mainly focus on increasing norepinephrine levels, which skips the process of dopamine getting converted into norepinephrine (Cleveland Clinic, 2025). The non-stimulant medication for ADHD is also an agonist, so it will bind to the norepinephrine receptors and stop the reuptake of norepinephrine. Taking a non-stimulant will take longer to see effects, but will improve attention, focus, and impulse control (Cleveland Clinic, 2025).
Reference List
Campo, N. D., Chamberlain, S. R., Sahakian, B. J., & Robbins, T. W. (2011, May 6). The roles of dopamine and noradrenaline in the pathophysiology and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322311002605?casa_token=wcr0J9gwmvYAAAAA%3AJ8mVo4zwCr_PosczAhxi-gpsrTbBE7L3W9_L-8lJrTSpD3u36hQmrw8ZU1eUYvRn0Tj9yxRwtQ
Madras, B. K., Miller, G. M., & Fischman, A. J. (2005, January 5). The dopamine transporter and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006322304010741?casa_token=i3E7H2s1bb8AAAAA%3AETkG0ZZfN4AeWbjunxUYIKeR2AQduBSltLdNGvWINkNcDft5zDV6n9brRvi5yK7-VsF9wyFzCg#section.0010
Biederman, J. x. (2004b, December 18). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A selective overview. ScienceDirect. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632230401100X?casa_token=q7HOR4SJGEUAAAAA%3A6YbbNv7Fq7atOKrgpUjeehqyrLtwM1JG4TH28ncDs73qOurAiBZYAf3STVR_fuJm1NDZgq9GGA
CDC, C. (2024, May 16). Treatment of ADHD. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/adhd/treatment/index.html
professional, C. C. medical. (2025, April 11). ADHD medications: How they work & side effects. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/treatments/11766-adhd-medication
Health Research Board. (2024). Agonist/Antagonist. https://www.drugsandalcohol.ie/glossary/info/agonist#:~:text=Agonist%3A%20A%20chemical%20substance%20that,examples%20of%20opioid%20receptor%20agonists.
Cleveland Medical Clinic. (2025, March 19). Dopamine: What it is, Function & Symptoms. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22581-dopamine
Cleveland Clinic medical. (2025, March 19). Norepinephrine: What it is, function, deficiency & side effects. Cleveland Clinic. https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/articles/22610-norepinephrine-noradrenaline
Snyder, S. H. (2011). What dopamine does in the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(47), 18869-18871.
Barkley, R. A. (2017). What causes ADHD. Download in December. URL: chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://russellbarkley.org/factsheets/WhatCausesADHD2017.pdf
I think Aden’s STEAM project focuses on ADHD and how it’s connected to dopamine and norepinephrine, which are both neurotransmitters and hormones. The written portion of his project explains how those 2 chemicals work in the brain and how having too many reuptake receptors might be what causes the imbalance in people with ADHD. I thought the way it broke down stimulant and non stimulant medications was actually really helpful and it showed how these meds act like agonists to raise dopamine and norepinephrine levels, which improves focus and helps reduce our impulsivity.
The drawing that goes with the project was super creative and helped visualize the differences between a medicated and unmedicated brain. It shows how reuptake can “vacuum” up the neurotransmitters too quickly in an ADHD brain, and how medication changes that. It’s simple but gets the point across in a way that makes the science easier to understand.
Overall, this project does a great job explaining how hormone feedback and receptor activity work in people with ADHD, and how medications can help restore balance. I liked how both the writing and the art tied directly back to the course objectives about hormone control and interactions.